History

When I first started researching this topic I tried to track down a book by Ringenback (1971) Procrastination through the ages: A definitive history, cited several times by Knaus (1979; 2000). This search is not recommended. After spending weeks on this endeavor, enlisting the help of professional librarians, I finally found a very relevant section in the appendix of an old PhD thesis by Margaret Aitken (1982). Her correspondence with Paul Ringenbach and the publisher reveals that the work was never actually written. It was actually an elaborate joke (i.e., a book on procrastination that was never completed). See also Kaplan (1998) for another well-conducted academic article/prank.

However, there has been some legitimate investigations into when and whether we have procrastinated. Here are two lines of inquiry. The first indicates that procrastination is a relatively recent phenomenon. The second, based on my own research, indicates that procrastination has existed throughout time but has risen in recent years.

Procrastination: Recent Phenomenon

Noach Milgram (1992) wrote the first historical analysis on this topic, Procrastination: A Malady of Modern Time. There he argues that technically advanced societies require numerous commitments, deadlines, and scheduling, and it is from this nasty brew that our vice arises. Consequently, undeveloped agrarian societies are not beset by the woes of procrastination. Ferrari, Johnson, and McCown (1995), in their book, take a similar though somewhat softened stand. They contend that procrastination has existed throughout history but that it only acquired truly negative connotations with the advent of the industrial revolution, that is circa 1750. Before then, procrastination was viewed neutrally and could be interpreted as a wise course of (in)action. Accordingly, they find examples from ancient Egyptian and Roman civilizations where the authors use the concept of postponement or putting off as being useful or wise (DeSimone, 1993 as cited in Ferrari et al., 1995). These examples include avoiding unnecessary work or demonstrating patience. Also, they note that procrastination, according to the OED (1952), did not have negative connotations until the mid-18th century. Consequently, they conclude, "that as economies become large and more complex words related to the concept of task avoidance become more negatively imbued with meaning" (p. 5).

Procrastination: Perpetual & Pervasive

On balance, there is some truth to procrastination being a modern malady. Self-reports of procrastination appear to be the rise. My own research indicates that in 1978, when we first started measuring procrastination, about 15% of the population said they procrastinate somewhat and about 1% indicated they often procrastinate. In 2002, about 60% of the population said they procrastinate somewhat and about 6% indicated they often procrastinate. Despite this increase, historical references indicate that our views about procrastination have been reasonably constant over the ages: its a prevalent problem.

Starting with the industrial revolution, Samuel Johnson (1751) writes about procrastination indicating that it is already well ingrained habit, not a recent fad. Specifically, "it is one of the general weaknesses, which, in spite of the instruction of moralists, and the remonstrances of reason, prevail to a greater or less degree in every mind." Similarly, a contemporary of Johnson, Phillip Stanhope (1749), the Earl of Chesterfield, stated, "no idleness, no laziness, no procrastination; never put off till tomorrow what you can do today."

Clearly preceding the industrial revolution was a sermon written by a Reverend Walker in the 17th century. There he makes it quite clear that procrastination is extremely sinful, that he and other ministers have rallied their congregations against it repeatedly, and that there are other texts available that speak similarly. This sermon can be further predated by John Lyly, an English novelist patronized by Queen Elizabeth I. Lyly made himself famous through a 1579 work Eupheus, a book that relies highly on proverbs for content. Within he writes, "Nothing so perilous as procrastination" (1579/1995). Also, the Oxford English Dictionary has references going back to 1548.

Earlier research into the nature of procrastination is obtainable through the Perseus Project, an extensive electronic collection of classical texts. Searching this database, there are several illuminating references. Focusing on the more notable sources, we find in 44 B.C. Marcus Cicero spoke upon this subject. Cicero was the consul of Rome, its highest political office, and an infamous orator who spoke against several political opponents such as Catiline, who Cicero had killed, and Mark Anthony, who had Cicero killed. In a series of speeches denouncing Mark Anthony, he states, "in the conduct of almost every affair slowness and procrastination are hateful"(Philippics, 6.7). Roughly 400 years earlier were the musings of Thucydides, an Athenian general who wrote extensively on the war with the Spartans, including various aspects of personalities and strategies. He mentions that procrastination is the most criticized of character traits, useful only in delaying the commencement of war, so as to allow preparations that speed its conclusion (Histoires, 1.84.1). Finally, there is Hesiod who wrote near 800 BC. Hesiod is one of the first recorded poets of Greek literature, and thus provides one of the first citations possible. His words are worth repeating in full (Works and Days, l. 413):

Do not put your work off till to-morrow and the day after; for a sluggish worker does not fill his barn, nor one who puts off his work: industry makes work go well, but a man who puts off work is always at hand-grips with ruin.

As an additional Eastern reference, there is the Bhagavad Gita. Written approximately 500 BC, it is considered to the most widely read and influential spiritual text of Hinduism. Within it, Krishna maintains: "Undisciplined, vulgar, stubborn, wicked, malicious, lazy, depressed, and procrastinating; such an agent is called a Taamasika agent" (18.28). Of special note, Taamasika people are considered so lowly that mortal rebirth is denied to them. Rather, they go to hell.

Conclusion

It is apparent procrastination has been with us for an extremely long time. Given that it has manifested itself under a myriad of conditions and cultures, it likely represents an intimate part of our human nature. It seems capable of finding expression equally within either the steel and glass buildings of modern New York or the stone and wood structures of ancient Thebes. To be fair to Milgram's (1992) and Ferrari et al.'s (1995) recency theories of procrastination, the frequency if not the severity of procrastination has likely grown. Essentially, if there are now more tasks to do and the deadlines for their completion are more deeply etched, then the opportunity and saliency of procrastination has necessarily increased. However, in seeking to better understand this ubiquitous iniquity, we should not believe it is particular to our modern society. Consequently, our explanations should likely focus on some fundamental and constant aspects of ourselves, as they must be relevant not only for the life of today, but also for that of antiquity.